“Just a few lines to let you know”. Formulaic language and personalization strategies in Great War trench letters written by semi-literate Scottish soldiers


Abstract


Abstract – Historical correspondence has been the object of increasing interest in the field of English linguistics; such research interests, in the case of vernacular letters, offer a valuable insight into language use seen from below. The current article examines a corpus of Great War trench letters written by George Murray and Thomas Clark Russell, two semi-literate Scottish soldiers. The study aims to identify and analyse the formulaic language and personalization strategies used by the soldier letter writers. The letters were transcribed to create a corpus of 94,477 running words. The corpus was examined by using a discourse historical approach (DHA) to critical discourse analysis (CDA). This approach allows an in-depth analysis of the texts, viewed as embedded in the context in which they occur. The letters were divided into segments (i. e. the opening formulae, the text body and the closing formulae) from which frequency word lists and concordances were extracted by using Sketch Engine. Findings show that opening salutations are followed by formulaic expressions, effectively creating a bridge between the salutation and the letter’s main content, and that the use of opening salutations and formulaic expressions varied depending upon the intended recipient of the letter as well as on the nature of the encoder’s relationship with the addressee. The pronouns identified were examined in context, focusing on their use with modal verbs. The analysis also revealed that modal verbs expressing epistemic modality were the most frequently occurring with pronouns in the corpus.

DOI Code: 10.1285/i22390359v31p111

Keywords: formulaic expressions; personalisation strategies; trench letters; historical discourse analysis; historical pragmatics

References


Altman J. 1982, Epistolarity: Approaches to a form, Ohio University Press, Columbus, OH.

Alvarez-Gil J.F. 2018, Epistemic modals in Early Modern English history texts. Analysis of gender variation, in “Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas” 13, pp. 13-20.

Auer A., Schreier D. and Watts R.J. (eds.) 2015, Letter Writing and Language Change. (Studies in English Language), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Austin F. 2004, Having this importunity: The survival of opening formulas in letters in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in “Historical Sociolinguistics and Sociohistorical Linguistics” 4. http://www.let.leidenuniv.nl/hsl_shl/heaving_this_im portunity.htm (03. 02. 2019).

Barton D. and Hall N. (eds.) 2000, Letter writing as a social practice, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Bewsher F.W. 1921, The History of the 51st (Highland) Division: 1914-1918, William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh.

Biber D. 1988, Variation across speech and writing, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Biber D. and Finegan E. 1997, Diachronic relations among speech-based and written registers in English, in Nevalainen T. and Kahlas-Tarkka L. (eds.), To explain the present: Studies in the changing English language in honour of Matti Rissanen, Société Néophilologique, Helsinki, pp. 253-275.

Biber D., Johansson S., Leech G., Conrad S. and Finegan E. 1999, Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, Pearson Education, Harlow.

Brown P. and Levinson S.C. 1987, Politeness: some universals in language use, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Cowan S. 2012, The Growth of Public Literacy in Eighteenth-century England, London University Press, London.

David D. 2012, The Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Davies A.C. 1983, “As good a country as any man needs to dwell” in letters from a Scotch-Irish immigrant in Pennsylvania, 1766, 1767, and 1784, in “Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies” 50 [4], pp. 313-322.

Dennett M. 1990, The Cherry Valley Chronicles. Letters from Thomas Buckley of Massachusetts to Ralph Buckley of Saddleworth 1845-1875, Saddleworth Historical Society, Saddleworth.

Dollinger S. 2008, New-dialect formation in Canada: Evidence from the English modal auxiliaries, John Benjamins, Amsterdam-Philadelphia.

Dossena M. 2004, Towards a corpus of nineteenth-century Scottish correspondence, in “Linguistica e Filologia” 18, pp. 195-214. https://aisberg.unibg.it/retrieve /handle/10446/220/2427/LeF18%282004%29Dossena.pdf (10.01.2019).

Dossena M. and Fitzmaurice S.M. 2006, Business and Official Correspondence: Historical Investigations, Peter Lang, Bern.

Dossena M. 2007, “As This Leaves Me at Present” – Formulaic Usage, Politeness and Social Proximity in Nineteenth-Century Scottish Emigrants’ Letters, in Elspaβ S., Langer N. and Vandenbussche W. (eds.), Germanic Language Histories from Below (1700–2000), De Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 13-30.

Dossena M. 2012a, “I write you these few lines”: Metacommunication and Pragmatics in 19th-century Scottish Emigrants’ Letters, in Busse U. and Hübler A. (eds.), Investigations into the Meta-Communicative Lexicon of English. A Contribution to Historical Pragmatics, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 45-63.

Dossena M. and Del Lungo Camiciotti G. (eds.) 2012b, Letter Writing in Late Modern Europe, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Dossena M. 2012c, The Study of Correspondence: Theoretical and Methodological Issues, in Dossena M. and Del Lungo Camiciotti G. (eds.), Letter Writing in Late Modern Europe, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 13-30.

Dossena M. 2013, Ego Documents in Scottish Corpora: The Contribution of Nineteenth-Century Letters and Diaries to the Study of Language History, in “Scottish Cultural Review of Language and Literature” 19, pp. 91-111.

Dossena M. 2015, “Across the ocean ferry” Point of view, description and evaluation in nineteenth-century narrations of ocean crossings, in Dossena M. (ed.), Transatlantic Perspectives on Late Modern English, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 117-134.

Elspaß S. 2007a, Everyday language in emigrant letters and its implications for language historiography – the German case, in “Multilingua: Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication” 26 [2-3], pp. 151-165.

Elspaß S. 2007b, A twofold view ‘from below’: New perspectives on language histories and language historiographies, in Elspaß S., Langer N., Scharloth J. and Vandenbussche W. (eds.), Germanic Language Histories 'from Below' (1700-2000), De Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 3-12.

Elspaß S. 2012, The Use of Private Letters and Diaries in Sociolinguistic Investigation, in Hernandez-Campoy J.M. and Conde-Silvestre J.C. (eds.), The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics, Blackwell Wiley, Chichester, pp. 156-169.

Fairman T. 2007a. Lower-order” letters, schooling and the English language, 1795 to 1834, in Elspaß S., Langer N., Scharloth J. and Vandenbussche W. (eds.), Germanic Language Histories ‘from Below’ (1700-2000), Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 31-43.

Fairman T. 2007b, Writing ‘the Standard’: England, 1795-1834, in “Multilingua” 26, pp. 165-199.

Finkelstein D. and McCleery A. (eds.), 2007, The Edinburgh History of the Book in Scotland, Volume 4: Professionalism and Diversity 1880–2000, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.

Fitzmaurice S. 2000, Tentativeness and insistence in the expression of politeness in Margaret Cavendish’s Sociable Letters, in “Language and Literature” 9 [1], pp. 7-24.

Fitzmaurice S. 2002, The Familiar Letter in Early Modern English - A pragmatic approach, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

French C. 2016, Friends are Good on the Day of Battle: The 51st (Highland) Division During the First World War, Wolverhampton Military Studies, Wolverhampton.

Fritz C.W.A. 2012, From English in Australia to Australian English 1788-1900, Peter Lang, Bern.

Gillen J. 2013, Writing Edwardian postcards, in “Journal of Sociolinguistics” 17 [4], pp. 488-521.

Gordon J. (ed.) 1845, The New Statistical Account of Scotland/by the ministers of the respective parishes, under the superintendence of a committee of the Society for the Benefit of the Sons and Daughters of the Clergy. Dalziel, Lanark, Vol. 6, Edinburgh, Blackwoods and Sons, 1845, p. 466.

University of Edinburgh, University of Glasgow, 1999, The Statistical Accounts of Scotland online service. http://stataccscot.edina.ac.uk/static/statacc/dist/viewer/nsa-vol6-Parish_record_for_Dalziel_in_the_county_of_Lanark_in_volume_6_of_account_2/nsa-vol6-p466-parish-lanark-dalziel (10.03.2018).

Hall N. and Gillen J. 2007, Purchasing pre-packed words: complaint and reproach in early British postcards, in Lyons M. (ed.), Ordinary Writings, Personal Narratives: Writing Practices in 19th and Early 20th- Century Europe, Peter Lang, Bern, pp. 101-118.

Hampshire A.C. 1961, They Called It Accident, William Kimber, London.

Hanna M. 2008, Your Death Would Be Mine: Paul and Marie Pireaud in the Great War, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Hanna M. 2014, War Letters: Communication between Home and Front, in Daniel U., Gatrell P., Janz O., Jones H., Keene J., Kramer A. and Nasson B. (eds.), 1914-1918 online International Encyclopaedia of the First World War, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin. https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war_letters_communication_between_front_and_home_front (04.01. 2016).

Holmes S.M. 2015, Education in the Century of Reformation, in Anderson R., Freeman M. and Patterson L. (eds.), The Edinburgh History of Education in Scotland, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp. 57-78.

Housiel S. 2008, De la micro-analyse à l’analyse globale des correspondances: lettres de combattants pendant la Grande Guerre, in “Argumentation et Analyse du Discours” 1|(2008). https://journals.openedition.org/aad/288 (10.10.2018).

Housiel S. 2013, Nature Versus War in Letters from the Front 1914 – 1918, in Norris M. (ed.), Words for a Small Planet: Ecocritical Views, Lexington Press, Maryland, pp. 75-92.

Housiel S. 2014, Le discours épistolaire de la Grande Guerre: Images et témoignages, http://experiencedelaguerreecritureimage.uqam.ca/textes/Housiel_Le%20discours%20%c3%a9pistolaire%20de%20la%20Grande%20Guerre.pdf (10.02.2018).

Jucker A.H. 2017, Speech Acts and Speech Act Sequences: Greetings and Farewells in the History of American English, in “Studia Neophilologica” 89 [1], pp. 39-58.

Klippi C. 2013, Letters from Gaston B.: A prisoner’s voice during the Great War, in Van Der Wal M. and Rutten G. (eds.), Touching the Past. Studies in the historical sociolinguistics of ego-documents, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 107-128.

Knox W.M. 2000, A History of the Scottish People – The Scottish Educational System 1840 –1940, SCRAN Trust, Edinburgh, https://www.scran.ac.uk/scotland/pdf/SP2_1Education.pdf (12.10.2016).

Lanson G. 1895, Choix de Lettres du XVIII Siècle, Hachette, Paris.

Lyons M. 2003, French Soldiers and Their Correspondence: Towards a History of Writing Practices in the First World War, in “French History” 17 [1], pp. 79-95.

Lyons M. (ed.) 2007, Ordinary Writings, Personal Narratives: Writing Practices in 19th and early 20th-century Europe, Peter Lang, Bern.

Lyons M. 2008, Reading culture and writing practices in nineteenth-century France, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

Lyons M. 2010, A History of Reading and Writing in the Western World, Palgrave-Macmillan, Basingstoke.

Lyons M. 2013, The Writing Culture of Ordinary People in Europe, C. 1860 – 1920, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Martin J.F. 1981, The Government and the Control of the British Coal Industry, 1914-1918, (Unpublished master's thesis), Loughborough University, Loughborough, https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/13782/1/MPhil%20-1981-Martin.pdf (10.11.2015).

Mazzon G. and Fodde L. (eds.) 2012, Historical Perspectives on Forms of English Dialogue, FrancoAngeli, Milano.

McCafferty K. 2017, Irish English in emigrant letters, in “World Englishes” 36 [2], pp. 176-190.

Macleod S. and Reid R. 2016, The Permanence of the Young Men: Five Seaforth Highlanders, Capercaillie Books, Edinburgh.

Meurman-Solin A.I. 2000, Change from above or below? Mapping the loci of linguistic change in the history of Scottish English, in Wright L. (ed.), The Development of Standard English 1300-1800: Theories, descriptions, conflicts, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 155-170.

Moreton E., O’Leary N. and O’Sullivan P. 2014, Visualising the Emigrant Letter, in “Revue Européenne des Migrations Internationales” 30 [3 & 4], pp. 49-69.

Nevala M. and Palander-Collin N. 2005, Letters and Letter Writing: Introduction, in “European Journal of English Studies” 9 [1], pp. 1-7.

Nevala M. and Nurmi H. 2013, The Corpora of Early English Correspondence (CEEC400), in “Studies in Variation, Contacts and Change in English 14: Principles and Practices for the Digital Editing and Annotation of Diachronic Data”. http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/series/volumes/14/nevala_nurmi/ (10.03.2017).

Nevalainen T. and Raumolin-Brunerg H. 1995, Constraints on politeness. The pragmatics of address formulae in Early English correspondence, in Jucker A. (ed.), Historical Pragmatics: Pragmatic Developments in the History of English, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 541-601.

Nordlund T. 2007, Double diglossia - Lower class writing in 19th-century Finland in “Multilingua - Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication” 26 [2-3], pp. 229-246.

Nurmi A. and Palander-Collin M. 2008, Letters as text type: Interaction in writing, in Dossena M. and Tieken-Boon van Ostade I. (eds.), Studies in Late Modern English Correspondence: Methodology and Data, Peter Lang, Bern, pp. 21-49.

Nuyts J. 2001, Epistemic modality, language, and conceptualization: A cognitive-pragmatic perspective, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Proctor T.M. 2014, The Everyday as Involved in War, in Daniel U., Gatrell P., Janz O., Jones H., Keene J., Kramer A. and Nasson B. (eds.), 1914-1918-online International Encyclopaedia of the First World War, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin. https://encyclopedia.19141918online.net/article/the_everyday_as_involved_in_war (10.01.2016).

Puttaert J. 2016, Linguistic Hybridity in Nineteenth-Century Lower-Class Letters A Case Study from Bruges, in Edlund A.C., Ashplant T.G. and Kuismin A. (eds.), Reading and writing from below: Exploring the margins of modernity, Umeå University, Umeå, pp. 215-234.

Raumolin-Brunberg H. and Nevalainen T. 2007, Historical sociolinguistics: The corpus of early English correspondence, in Beal J.C., Corrigan K.P. and Moisl H.L. (eds.), Creating and digitizing language corpora, Palgrave-Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp. 148-171.

Reisigl M. 2017, The Discourse-Historical Approach, in Flowerdew J. and Richardson J E. (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Critical Discourse Studies, Routledge, Abingdon.

Roper M. 2009, The Secret Battle: Emotional Survival in the Great War, Manchester University Press, Manchester.

Routledge G.L. 2002, The Sorrows of Quintinshill. The Harrowing Account of Britain's Worst Rail Disaster, Arthuret Publishing, Longtown.

Sairio A. 2013, Stance and self-fashioning in eighteenth-century letters, in Van der Wal M. and Rutten G. (eds.), Touching the Past. Studies in the historical sociolinguistics of ego-documents, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 183-200.

Sairio A. and Nevala M. 2013, Social dimensions of layout in eighteenth-century letters and letter-writing manuals, in “Studies in Variation, Contacts and Change in English 14: Principles and Practices for the Digital Editing and Annotation of Diachronic Data”, Varieng, Helsinki. http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/series/volumes/14/sairio_nevala/ (23.04.2017).

Sanders M.L. and Taylor P.M. 1982, British Propaganda during the First World War 1914-1918, Palgrave-Macmillan, Basingstoke.

Shvanyukova P. 2019, Promoting Negative Politeness in 19th Century England: The Case of Writing Manuals, in Paternoster A. and Fitzmaurice S. (eds.), Politeness in Nineteenth-Century Europe, John Benjamins, Amsterdam-Philadelphia, pp. 171-196.

Simkins P. 2007, Kitchener's Army: The Raising of the New Armies 1914-1916, Pen and Sword Books, Barnsley.

Stewart J. and Buchan J. 2003 [1926], The Fifteenth (Scottish) Division 1914–1919 (repr. The Naval & Military Press, Uckfield ed.), Blackwood, Edinburgh.

Taavitsainen I. and Fitzmaurice S. 2007, ‘Historical Pragmatics: What It Is and How to Do It’, in Taavitsainen I. and Fitzmaurice S. (eds.), Methods in Historical Pragmatics, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin and New York, pp. 11-36.

Tieken-Boon Van Ostade I.M. 1999, Of formulas and friends: expressions of politeness in John Gay's letters, in Tops G.A.J., Devriendt B. and Geukens S. (eds.), Thinking English Grammar to Honour Xavier Dekeyser, Peeters, Leuven, pp. 99-112.

Tieken-Boon Van Ostade I.M. 2009, An introduction to Late Modern English, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.

Tieken-Boon Van Ostade I.M. 2010, Communicative competence and the language of eighteenth-century letters, in Brownlees N., Del Lungo G. and Denton J. (eds.), The Language of Public and Private Communication in a Historical Perspective, Cambridge Scholars, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 24-45.

Traugott E.C. 1989, On the Rise of Epistemic Meanings in English: An Example of Subjectification in Semantic Change, in “Language” 65, pp. 31-55.

Van Der Wal M. and Rutten G. (eds.) 2013, Touching the Past. Studies in the historical sociolinguistics of ego-documents, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Van Der Wal M. and Rutten G. 2014, Letters as Loot. A sociolinguistic approach to seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Dutch, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Vandenbussche W. 2006, A Rough Guide to German Research on ‘Arbeitersprache’ during the 19th Century, in Andrásová H., Ernst P. and Spácilová L. (eds.), Germanistik genieβen: Gedenkschrift für Doc. Dr. phil. Hildegard Boková, Praesens Verlag, Vienna, pp. 439-458.


Full Text: pdf

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.
کاغذ a4

Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribuzione - Non commerciale - Non opere derivate 3.0 Italia License.