Coping with racism: Exploring experiences of the post-apartheid generation of Black students at an historically Whites-only university in South Africa


Abstract


This study explored how the post-apartheid generation of Black students cope with institutional racism and overt acts of racism at an historically Whites-only university. The experiences reported by Black students indicate that racism can manifest in various forms across different aspects of their lives. These experiences encompass institutional, academic, social, and emotional realms of their lived realities. N=6 Black students were interviewed to explore their experiences of racism and their coping mechanisms, using semi-structured interviews. A transcendental phenomenological research design underpinned the study in its focus on the shared lived racial experiences of post-apartheid Black students in an historically Whites-only university. Thematic analysis (TA) was used as a method of data analysis to elucidate these experiences. To align with the aim of the study, the analysis of gathered data employed a thematic approach grounded in social stress theory. The findings reveal that overt acts of racism and institutional racism perpetually afflict Black students, in post-apartheid South Africa. Five themes, and one overarching theme of coping defences were generated: academic determination, boldness, physically and emotionally escaping, faith, support, and inclusion. Fundamentally, the findings demonstrate that Black students adopt both adaptive and maladaptive defences of coping with their experiences of racism, with perpetual psychological costs to their emotional and academic functioning.


DOI Code: 10.1285/i24212113v9i2p61

Keywords: Racism; post-apartheid; ‘born-free’ Black generation; coping with racism; historically Whites-only University, social stress theory

References


Abid, A. A. (1999). Identity Formations and deformations in South Africa: A Historical and Contemporary Overview. Journal of Black Studies, 30(7), 147-163.

Albertus, R. W., & Tong, K. W. (2019). Decolonisation of institutional structures in South African universities: A critical perspective. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1620403

Anderson, K. F. (2013). Diagnosing discrimination: stress from perceived racism and the mental and physical health effects. Sociological Inquiry, 83(1), 55-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2012.00433.x

Andrews, K. (2019, October 23). Racism in universities is a systemic problem, not a series of incidents. The Gurdian, 23. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/oct/23/racism-in-universities-is-a-systemic-problem-not-a-series-of-incidents

Appiah, K. A. (2020). The case for capitalizing the B in black. The Atlantic,18. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/06/time-to-capitalize-blackand-white/613159/

Ayalon, L., & Gum, A. M. (2011). The relationships between major lifetime discrimination, everyday discrimination, and mental health in three racial and ethnic groups of older adults. Aging Mental Health, 15(5), 587¬¬-594. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2010.543664

Babbie, E. R. (2010). The practice of social research (12th ed). Cengage Learning.

Bond, M. A., Serrano-García, I., & Keys, C. B. (2020). Toward a liberation psychology agenda for social justice: Examining the contributions of Ignacio Martín-Baró. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(4), 1110-1128.

Bosch, T. (2016). Twitter and participatory citizenship: #FeesMustFall in South Africa, in Mutsvairo, B (eds) (2012). Digital activism in the social media era: Critical reflections on emerging trends in sub-Saharan Africa, 159-173. Palgrave Macmillan.

Bawa, A. C. (2012). South African higher education: At the center of a cauldron of national imaginations. Social Research: An International Quarterly, 79(3), 669-694. https://doi.org/ 10.1353/sor.2012.0007

Brondolo, E., Ver Halen, N. B., Pencille, M., Beatty, D., & Contrada, R. J. (2009). Coping with racism: A selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 64-8. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10865-008-9193-0

Byrd, W.C. (2017). Poison in the ivy: Race relations and the reproduction of inequality on elite college campuses. Rutgers University Press.

Connelly, L. M. (2016). Trustworthiness in qualitative research. MEDSURG Nursing, 25(6), 435–436. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/trustworthiness-qualitative-research/docview/1849700459/se-2?accountid=14717

Cooper, M. (2008). Essential research findings in counselling and psychotherapy: The facts are friendly. SAGE.

Cramer, P. (1998). Coping and Defense Mechanisms: What's The Difference?. Journal of Personality, 6(66), 919-946. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00037

Cresswell, J. W. (2016). Reflections on the MMIRA the future of mixed methods task force report. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 10(3), 215-219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689816650298

Dalal, F. (2013). Race, colour and the processes of racialization: New perspectives from group analysis, psychoanalysis and sociology. Routledge.

Dawson, D., Moghaddam, N. (2020). Covid-19: Psychological flexibility, coping, mental health, and wellbeing in the Uk during the pandemic. Journal of Contextual Behavioural Science, (17), 126-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.07.010

Deasy, C., Coughlan, B., Pironom, J., Jourdan, D., McNamara, P. (2014). Psychological Distress and Coping Amongst Higher Education Students: A Mixed Method Enquiry. Plos One, 12(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115193

Duffy, R. (2013). The significance of community psychology for social justice. American Journal of Community Psychology, 52(3-4), 238-243.

Durrheim, K., Mtose, X., & Brown., L. (2011). Race trouble: Race, identity and inequality in post-apartheid South Africa. Lexington Books.

Englander, M. (2012). The interview: Data collection in descriptive phenomenological human scientific research. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 43, 13-35. https://doi.org/10.1163/156916212x632943

Erasmus, Z., & De Wet., J. (2011). Not naming race: Some medical students’ perceptions and experiences of ‘race’ and racism at the Health Sciences faculty of the University of Cape Town. University of Cape Town.

Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11

Finchilescu, G., & Tredoux., C. (2010). The changing landscape of intergroup relations in South Africa. Journal of Social Issues, 66(2), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2010.01642.x

Frazier, L. (2016). Black students resisting and coping with racism at predominately white institutions [Master’s thesis, University of Mississippi]. eGrove.

Giwa, S. (2016). Surviving racist culture: Strategies of managing racism among gay men of colour—An interpretative phenomenological analysis [Doctoral dissertation]. YorkSpace Institutional Repository.

Heffernan, A., & Nieftagodien, N. (2016). Students must rise: Youth struggle in South Africa before and beyond Soweto ’76. Wits University Press.

Heleta, S. (2016). Decolonisation of higher education: Dismantling epistemic violence and Eurocentrism in South Africa. Transformation in Higher Education, 1(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/ 10.4102/the.v1i1.9

Hernández, P., Carranza, M., & Almeida, R. (2010). Mental health professionals’ adaptive responses to racial microaggressions: An exploratory study. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 41(3), 202-209. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018445

Holder, A. M., Jackson, M. A, & Ponterotto, J. G. (2015). Racial microaggression experiences and coping strategies of Black women in corporate leadership. Qualitative psychology, 2(2), 164-180. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000024

Isaacs, L. (2020, June 17). Maties student recalls racist slogans written on residence doors. Independent Online. https://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/news/maties-student-recalls-racist-slogans-written-on-residence-doors-49480578

Jackson, P. B., Williams, D. R., Stein, D. J., Herman, A., Williams, S. L., & Redmond, D. L. (2010). Race and psychological distress: The South African Stress and Health Study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(4), 458-477. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510386795

Jamshed, S. (2014). Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation. Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacy, 5(4), 87-88. https://doi..org/ 10.4103/0976-0105.141942

Jean-Marie, G., Grant, C. M., & Irby, B. (2014). The duality of women scholars of color. Information Age Publishing.

Joorst, J. (2019, January 24) Racism is still rife in South Africa’s schools. What can be done about it? The conversation.com. https://theconversation.com/racism-is-still-rife-in-south-africas-schools-what-can-be-done-about-it-110195

Kamanga, E. (2019). Lived experiences of hidden racism of students of colour at an historically white university [Master’s thesis, Stellenbosch University]. SUNScholar Research Repository.

Kessi, S. (2013). Transforming historically white universities: students and the politics of racial representation. South African Journal of Economic and Social Policy, 50, 53-57. https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/24846?show=full

Kessi, S., & Cornell, J. (2015). Coming to UCT: Black students, transformation and discourses of race. Journal of Student Affairs in Africa, 3(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.14426/jsaa.v3i2.132

Krok, D., Zarzycka, B. (2020). Risk Perception Of Covid-19, Meaning-based Resources and Psychological Well-being Amongst Healthcare Personnel: The Mediating Role Of Coping. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(9), 3225. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9103225

Leath, S., Mathews, C., Harrison, A., & Chavous, T. (2019). Racial identity, racial discrimination, and classroom engagement outcomes among Black girls and boys in predominantly Black and predominantly White school districts. American Educational Research Journal, 56(4), 1318-1352. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218816955

Lemanski, C. (2004). A new apartheid? The spatial implications of fear of crime in Cape Town, South Africa. Environment and Urbanization, 16(2), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F095624780401600201

Levy, D. J., Heissel, J .A., Richeson, J. A., & Adam, E. K (2016). Psychological and biological responses to race-based social stress as pathways to disparities in educational outcomes. American Psychologists, 71(6), 455. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0040322

Lewis, J. A., Mendenhall, R., Harwood, S. A., & Huntt, M. B. (2013). Coping with gendered racial microaggressions among Black women college students. Journal of African American Studies, 17(1), 51-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-012-9219-0.

Liang, C. T., Alvarez, A. N., Juang, L. P., & Liang, M. X. (2007). The role of coping in the relationship between perceived racism and racism-related stress for Asian Americans: Gender differences. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(2), 132-141. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.132

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.

Makhanya, Z. (2009). Exploring the early experiences of racism of a group of adults and the perceived influence of these experiences on their sense of identity. The University of the Witwatersrand, JHB: Unpublished Honors thesis.

Martin, M. J., McCarthy, B., Conger, R. D., Gibbons, F .X, Simons, R. L., Cutrona, C. E., & Brody, G. H. (2011). The enduring significance of racism: discrimination and delinquency among Black American youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(3), 662- 676. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00699.x

Mattes, R. (2012). The ‘born frees’: The prospects for generational change in post-apartheid South Africa. Australian Journal of Political Science, 47(1), 133-153. https://www.afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/migrated/files/publications/Working%20paper/AfropaperNo131.pdf

McCulloch, K. C., & Parks-Stamm, E. (2018). Reaching resolution: The effect of prayer on psychological perspective and emotional acceptance. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000234

Modise, L. J. (2020). Racism as a challenge for church and society in democratic South Africa: Human dignity perspective. Theologia Viatorum, 44(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/tv.v44i1.35

Mohd Arifin, S. R. (2018). Ethical considerations in qualitative study. International Journal of Care Scholars, 1(2), 30-33. http://doi.org/10.31436/ijcs.v1i2.82

Mossakowski, K. N. (2014). Stress and mental illness, in Cockerham, W C, Dingwall, S, & Quah, S R (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of health, illness, behavior, and society. Wiley.

Murugesu, J. (2020, October 1) Universities are failing to address racism on campus. Timeshighereducation.

Mzangwa, S. T., & Dede, Y. (2019). The effects of higher education policy on transformation in post-apartheid South Africa. Cogent Education, 6(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1592737

Nadal, K.L., Wong, Y., Griffin, K. E, Davidoff, K., & Sriken, J. (2014). The adverse impact of racial microaggressions on college students’ self-esteem. Journal of College Student Development, 55(5), 461-474. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2014.0051

Nelson, G., & Prilleltensky, I. (2005). Community psychology: In pursuit of liberation and well-being. Palgrave Macmillan.

Neubauer, B.E, Witkop, C. T., & Varpio, L. (2019). How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspectives on Medical Education, 8, 90-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2

Palmer, F. T. (2016). Racialism and representation in the Rainbow Nation. SAGE Journals, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016673873

Priest, N. C., Paradies, Y. C, Gunthorpe, W., Cairney, S. J., & Sayers, S.M. (2011). Racism as a determinant of social and emotional wellbeing for Aboriginal Australian youth. Med Journal of Australia, 194(10), 546-550. https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.2011.tb03099.x

Prilleltensky, I., & Nelson, G. (2002). Doing psychology critically: Making a difference in diverse settings. Palgrave Macmillan.

Polkinghorne, D. E. (2007). Validity issues in narrative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 13(4), 471-486. https:/doi.org/10.1177/1077800406297670

Puttick, K. (2011). First year students’ narratives of ‘race’ and racism in post-apartheid South Africa [Master’s dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand]. Wits Institutional Repository on DSpace.

Ramoupi, N. L. L. (2014). African research and scholarship: 20 years of lost opportunities to transform higher education in South Africa. Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies, 38(1), 269-286. https://doi.org/10.5070/F7381025032

Rahman, M. S. (2016). The advantages and disadvantages of using qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods in language “testing and assessment” research: A literature review. Canadian Center of Science and Education, 6(1), 102-112. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v6n1p102

Roald, T., Køppe, S., Bechmann Jensen, T., Moeskjær Hansen, J., & Levin, K. (2021). Why do we always generalize in qualitative research? Qualitative Psychology, 8(1), 69-81. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000138

Sousa, D. (2014). Phenomenological psychology: Husserl’s static and genetic methods. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 45(1), 27-60. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691624-12341267

Spaull, N. (2013). Poverty & privilege: Primary school inequality in South Africa. International Journal of Educational Development, 33(5), 436-447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.09.009

Strydom, H. (2011). Ethical aspects of research in the Social Sciences and Human. In A. De Vos, H. Strydom, C. Fouché, & C. Delport (Eds,). Research at grassroots: For the Social Sciences and Human Service. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.

Snyder, C. R. (1999). Coping: The psychology of what works. New York: Oxford University Press.

Szymanski, D. M., & Lewis, J. A. (2016). Gendered racism, coping, identity centrality, and African American college women’s psychological distress. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 229-243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315616113

Terre Blanche, M. J., Durrheim, K., & Painter, D. (2014). Research in practice: Applied methods for the social sciences (2nd ed) Juta.

Thomas, G. D., & Hollenshead, C. (2001). Resisting from the margins: The coping strategies of Black women and other women of color faculty members at a research university. The Journal of Negro Education, 70(3), 166-175. https://doi.org/10.2307/3211208

Wang, J., Leu, J., & Shoda., Y. (2011). When the seemingly innocuous “stings”: Racial microaggressions and their emotional consequences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(12), 1666-1678. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211416130

Williams, D. R. (2018). Stress and the mental health of populations pf color: Advancing our understanding of race-related stress. Journal of Health Social Behaviour, 59(4), 466-485. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518814251

Zamudio, M., Russell, C., Rios, F., & Bridgeman, J. L. (2011). Critical race theory matters: Education and ideology. Routledge.


Full Text: PDF

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribuzione - Non commerciale - Non opere derivate 3.0 Italia License.